# Regression, Path Specification¶

This example will show how regression can be carried out from a path-centric structural modeling perspective. This example is in three parts; a simple regression, a multiple regression, and multivariate regression. There are two versions of each example available; one where the data is supplied as a covariance matrix and vector of means, and one with raw data. These examples are available in the following files:

Parallel versions of these examples, using matrix specification of models rather than paths, can be found here:

and are discussed here (Regression, Matrix Specification).

## Simple Regression¶

We begin with a single dependent variable (y) and a single independent variable (x). The relationship between these variables takes the following form:

\begin{eqnarray*} y = \beta_{0} + \beta_{1} * x + \epsilon \end{eqnarray*}

In this model, the mean of y is dependent on both regression coefficients (and by extension, the mean of x). The variance of y depends on both the residual variance (\sigma^{2}_{\epsilon}) and the product of the regression slope (\beta_{1}) and the variance of x (\sigma^{2}_{x}). This model contains five parameters from a structural modeling perspective \beta_{0}, \beta_{1}, \sigma^{2}_{\epsilon}, and the mean and variance of x, \mu^{2}_x and \sigma^{2}_x. We are modeling a covariance matrix with three degrees of freedom (two variances and one covariance) and a means vector with two degrees of freedom (two means). Because the model has as many parameters (5) as the data have degrees of freedom, this model is fully saturated.

### Data¶

Our first step to running this model is to include the data to be analyzed. The data must first be placed in a variable or object. For raw data, this can be done with the read.table function. The data provided has a header row, indicating the names of the variables.

data(myRegDataRaw)


The names of the variables provided by the header row can be displayed with the names() function.

names(myRegDataRaw)


As you can see, our data has four variables in it. However, our model only contains two variables, x and y. To use only them, we will select only the variables we want and place them back into our data object. That can be done with the R code below.

SimpleDataRaw <- myRegDataRaw[,c("x","y")]


For covariance data, we do something very similar. We create an object to house our data. Instead of reading in raw data from an external file, we can include a covariance matrix. This requires the matrix() function, which needs to know what values are in the covariance matrix, how big it is, and what the row and column names are. As our model also references means, we will include a vector of means in a separate object. Data is selected in the same way as before.

myRegDataCov <- matrix(
c(0.808,-0.110, 0.089, 0.361,
-0.110, 1.116, 0.539, 0.289,
0.089, 0.539, 0.933, 0.312,
0.361, 0.289, 0.312, 0.836),
nrow=4, dimnames=list( c("w","x","y","z"), c("w","x","y","z")) )

SimpleDataCov <- myRegDataCov[c("x","y"),c("x","y")]

myRegDataMeans <- c(2.582, 0.054, 2.574, 4.061)
names(myRegDataMeans) <- c("w","x","y","z")

SimpleDataMeans <- myRegDataMeans[c(2,3)]


### Model Specification¶

The following code contains all of the components of our model. Before running a model, the OpenMx library must be loaded into R using either the require() or library() function. All objects required for estimation (data, paths, and a model type) are included in their own arguments or functions. This code uses the mxModel function to create an MxModel object, which we will then run. Note the difference in capitalization for the first letter.

require(OpenMx)

dataRaw      <- mxData( observed=SimpleDataRaw,  type="raw" )
# variance paths
varPaths     <- mxPath( from=c("x","y"), arrows=2,
free=TRUE, values = c(1,1), labels=c("varx","residual") )
# regression weights
regPaths     <- mxPath( from="x", to="y", arrows=1,
free=TRUE, values=1, labels="beta1" )
# means and intercepts
means        <- mxPath( from="one", to=c("x","y"), arrows=1,
free=TRUE, values=c(1,1), labels=c("meanx","beta0") )

uniRegModel  <- mxModel(model="Simple Regression Path Specification", type="RAM",
dataRaw, manifestVars=c("x","y"), varPaths, regPaths, means)


We are presenting the code here in the piecewise style and thus will create several of the pieces up front before putting them together in the mxModel statement. We will pre-specify the MxData object dataRaw, and the various MxPath objects to define the variance paths varPaths, regression weights regPaths and the means and intercepts in means. These are then included as arguments of the MxModel object.

This mxModel function can be split into several parts. First, we give the model a title. The first argument in an mxModel function has a special function. If an object or variable containing an MxModel object is placed here, then mxModel adds to or removes pieces from that model. If a character string (as indicated by double quotes) is placed first, then that becomes the name of the model. Models may also be named by including a name argument. This model is named “Simple Regression Path Specification”.

The next part of our code is the type argument. By setting type="RAM", we tell OpenMx that we are specifying a RAM model for covariances and means, and that we are doing so using the mxPath function. With this setting, OpenMx uses the specified paths to define the expected covariance and means of our data.

The third component of our code creates an MxData object. The example above, reproduced here in parts, first references the object where our data is, then uses the type argument to specify that this is raw data.

dataRaw      <- mxData( observed=SimpleDataRaw, type="raw" )


If we were to use a covariance matrix and vector of means as data, we would replace the existing mxData function with this one:

dataCov      <- mxData( observed=SimpleDataCov, type="cov", numObs=100,
means=SimpleDataMeans )


We must also specify the list of observed variables using the manifestVars argument. In the code below, we include a list of both observed variables, x and y.

manifestVars=c("x", "y")


The last features of our code are three mxPath functions, which describe the relationships between variables. Each function first describes the variables involved in any path. Paths go from the variables listed in the from argument, and to the variables listed in the to argument. When arrows is set to 1, then one-headed arrows (regressions) are drawn from the from variables to the to variables. When arrows is set to 2, two headed arrows (variances or covariances) are drawn from the the from variables to the to variables. If arrows is set to 2, then the to argument may be omitted to draw paths both to and from the list of from variables.

The variance terms of our model (that is, the variance of x and the residual variance of y) are created with the following mxPath function. We want two headed arrows from x to x, and from y to y. These paths should be freely estimated (free=TRUE), have starting values of 1, and be labeled "varx" and "residual", respectively.

# variance paths
varPaths     <- mxPath( from=c("x","y"), arrows=2,
free=TRUE, values = c(1,1), labels=c("varx","residual") )


The regression term of our model (that is, the regression of y on x) is created with the following mxPath function. We want a single one-headed arrow from x to y. This path should be freely estimated (free=TRUE), have a starting value of 1, and be labeled "beta1".

# regression weights
regPaths     <- mxPath( from="x", to="y", arrows=1,
free=TRUE, values=1, labels="beta1" )


We also need means and intercepts in our model. Exogenous or independent variables have means, while endogenous or dependent variables have intercepts. These can be included by regressing both x and y on a constant, which can be refered to in OpenMx by "one". The intercept terms of our model are created with the following mxPath function. We want single one-headed arrows from the constant to both x and y. These paths should be freely estimated (free=TRUE), have a starting value of 1, and be labeled meanx and "beta1", respectively.

# means and intercepts
means        <- mxPath( from="one", to=c("x","y"), arrows=1,
free=TRUE, values=c(1,1), labels=c("meanx","beta0") )


Our model is now complete!

### Model Fitting¶

We’ve created an MxModel object, and placed it into an object or variable named uniRegModel. We can run this model by using the mxRun function, and the output is placed in the object uniRegFit in the code below. We then view the output by referencing the output slot, as shown here.

uniRegFit <- mxRun(uniRegModel)


The output slot contains a great deal of information, including parameter estimates and information about the matrix operations underlying our model. A more parsimonious report on the results of our model can be viewed using the summary function, as shown here.

uniRegFit$output summary(uniRegFit)  ## Multiple Regression¶ In the next part of this demonstration, we move to multiple regression. The regression equation for our model looks like this: \begin{eqnarray*} y = \beta_{0} + \beta_{x} * x + \beta_{z} * z + \epsilon \end{eqnarray*} Our dependent variable y is now predicted from two independent variables, x and z. Our model includes 3 regression parameters (\beta_{0}, \beta_{x}, \beta_{z}), a residual variance (\sigma^{2}_{\epsilon}) and the observed means, variances and covariance of x and z, for a total of 9 parameters. Just as with our simple regression, this model is fully saturated. We prepare our data the same way as before, selecting three variables instead of two. MultipleDataRaw <- myRegDataRaw[,c("x","y","z")] MultipleDataCov <- myRegDataCov[c("x","y","z"),c("x","y","z")] MultipleDataMeans <- myRegDataMeans[c(2,3,4)]  Now, we can move on to our code. It is identical in structure to our simple regression code, but contains additional paths for the new parts of our model. require(OpenMx) dataCov <- mxData( observed=MultipleDataCov, type="cov", numObs=100, means=MultipleDataMeans ) # variance paths varPaths <- mxPath( from=c("x","y","z"), arrows=2, free=TRUE, values = c(1,1,1), labels=c("varx","res","varz") ) # covariance of x and z covPaths <- mxPath( from="x", to="z", arrows=2, free=TRUE, values=0.5, labels="covxz" ) # regression weights regPaths <- mxPath( from=c("x","z"), to="y", arrows=1, free=TRUE, values=1, labels=c("betax","betaz") ) # means and intercepts means <- mxPath( from="one", to=c("x","y","z"), arrows=1, free=TRUE, values=c(1,1), labels=c("meanx","beta0","meanz") ) multiRegModel <- mxModel("Multiple Regression Path Specification", type="RAM", dataCov, manifestVars=c("x","y","z"), varPaths, covPaths, regPaths, means) multiRegFit <- mxRun(multiRegModel) multiRegFit$output
summary(multiRegFit)


As the code should look more or less familiar, we will focus on the parts that are new or changed. As I’m sure you know by now, require(OpenMx) makes sure the OpenMx library is loaded into R. This only needs to be done at the first model of any R session. Note that we will discuss the various objects of the piecewise style script as they are included in the mxModel statement.

First, the title is changed to reflect the purpose of this model. The type="RAM" argument is identical. The mxData function references our multiple regression data, which contains one more variable than our simple regression data, and is saved in the dataCov object. Similarly, our manifestVars list contains an extra label, "z".

The mxPath functions work just as before. Our first function defines the variances of our variables. Whereas our simple regression included just the variance of x and the residual variance of y, our multiple regression includes the variance of z as well.

Our second mxPath function specifies a two-headed arrow (covariance) between x and z. We’ve omitted the to argument from two-headed arrows up until now, as we have only required variances. Covariances may be specified by using both the from and to arguments. This path is freely estimated, has a starting value of 0.5, and is labeled covxz.

# covariance of x and z
covPaths     <- mxPath( from="x", to="z", arrows=2,
free=TRUE, values=0.5, labels="covxz" )


The third and fourth mxPath functions mirror the second and third mxPath functions from our simple regression, defining the regressions of y on both x and z as well as the means and intercepts of our model.

The model is run and output is viewed just as before, using the mxRun function, and $output and the summary function to run, view and summarize the completed model. ## Multivariate Regression¶ The structural modeling approach allows for the inclusion of not only multiple independent variables (i.e., multiple regression), but multiple dependent variables as well (i.e., multivariate regression). Versions of multivariate regression are sometimes fit under the heading of path analysis. This model will extend the simple and multiple regression frameworks we’ve discussed above, adding a second dependent variable w. \begin{eqnarray*} y = \beta_{y} + \beta_{yx} * x + \beta_{yz} * z + \epsilon_{y}\\ w = \beta_{w} + \beta_{wx} * x + \beta_{wz} * z + \epsilon_{w} \end{eqnarray*} We now have twice as many regression parameters, a second residual variance, and the same means, variances and covariances of our independent variables. As with all of our other examples, this is a fully saturated model. Data import for this analysis will actually be slightly simpler than before. The data we imported for the previous examples contains only the four variables we need for this model. We can use myRegDataRaw, myRegDataCov, and myRegDataMeans in our models. data(myRegDataRaw) myRegDataCov <- matrix( c(0.808,-0.110, 0.089, 0.361, -0.110, 1.116, 0.539, 0.289, 0.089, 0.539, 0.933, 0.312, 0.361, 0.289, 0.312, 0.836), nrow=4, dimnames=list( c("w","x","y","z"), c("w","x","y","z")) ) myRegDataMeans <- c(2.582, 0.054, 2.574, 4.061)  Our code should look very similar to our previous two models. It includes the same type argument, mxData function, and manifestVars argument as previous models, with a different version of the data and additional variables in the latter two components. dataRaw <- mxData( observed=myRegDataRaw, type="raw" ) # variance paths varPaths <- mxPath( from=c("w","x","y","z"), arrows=2, free=TRUE, values=1, labels=c("residualw","varx","residualy","varz") ) # covariance of x and z covPaths <- mxPath( from="x", to="z", arrows=2, free=TRUE, values=0.5, labels="covxz" ) # regression weights for y regPathsY <- mxPath( from=c("x","z"), to="y", arrows=1, free=TRUE, values=1, labels=c("betayx","betayz") ) # regression weights for w regPathsW <- mxPath( from=c("x","z"), to="w", arrows=1, free=TRUE, values=1, labels=c("betawx","betawz") ) # means and intercepts means <- mxPath( from="one", to=c("w","x","y","z"), arrows=1, free=TRUE, values=c(1, 1), labels=c("betaw","meanx","betay","meanz") ) multivariateRegModel <- mxModel("MultiVariate Regression Path Specification", type="RAM", dataRaw, manifestVars=c("w","x","y","z"), varPaths, covPaths, regPathsY, regPathsW, means ) multivariateRegFit <- mxRun(multivariateRegModel) multivariateRegFit$output
summary(multivariateRegFit)


The only additional components to our mxPath functions are the inclusion of the w variable and the additional set of regression coefficients for w. Running the model and viewing output works exactly as before.

These models may also be specified using matrices instead of paths. See Regression, Matrix Specification for matrix specification of these models.